As we grow older, our bodies undergo many changes, including changes in our metabolism. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur in our bodies to maintain life. These processes are essential for providing energy, building and repairing tissues, and eliminating waste products. As we age, our metabolic pathways can become altered, leading to various age-related diseases and conditions. One example of a metabolic pathway that is affected by aging is the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is responsible for producing ATP, the primary source of energy for our cells. As we age, the function of the ETC can become impaired, leading to a decrease in ATP production and an increase in oxidative stress. This can contribute to age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and diabetes. Another example is the mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) pathway, which regulates cellular growth and metabolism. Studies have shown that inhibiting the mTOR pathway can increase lifespan in various model organisms, including mice. This has led to increased interest in developing drugs that target this pathway as a potential anti-aging strategy. One of the leading academics in this field is Dr. David Sinclair, a Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Sinclair's research has focused on the role of metabolism in aging and age-related diseases, and he has made significant contributions to the field. For example, his research has shown that supplementing with NAD+, a molecule involved in energy metabolism, can improve various aspects of aging in mice. Another leading academic in this field is Dr. Valter Longo, a Professor of Gerontology and Biological Science at the University of Southern California. Dr. Longo's research has focused on the role of fasting and caloric restriction in aging and age-related diseases. His work has shown that periodic fasting can have a range of health benefits, including improving insulin sensitivity and reducing inflammation. In conclusion, the study of metabolic pathways in aging is a fascinating and rapidly growing field. By understanding the complex interplay between metabolism and aging, we can better understand the underlying causes of age-related diseases and conditions. Students who are interested in this topic can continue to explore it through reading and research, or by pursuing their own experiments and projects. With the right tools and resources, they can make meaningful contributions to this exciting field and help improve our understanding of aging and metabolic pathways.

HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is a master of disguise. It can change its outer coat of proteins frequently, making it hard for the immune system to recognise and destroy it. HIV targets Helper T cells, which act as the air traffic controllers of the immune system, coordinating the efforts of other immune cells. If Helper T cells disappear, the whole immune system would have trouble fighting not just HIV but many other illnesses as well. Boosting the immune system against HIV requires getting the Helper T cells back in control. Learning about the immune system and how it works can help you understand how HIV affects the body and how to boost your immune system against it. By exploring this topic through reading, reflection, writing and self-directed projects, you can gain a deeper understanding of the immune system and how to protect yourself from harmful intruders like viruses and bacteria.

UCLA scientists have identified how immune cells detect and respond to cancer cells, leading to better personalized immunotherapies for patients who do not respond to treatment. Checkpoint inhibitors improve T cells' ability to recognize and attack cancer cells, and the study showed that when immunotherapy is effective, it directs a diverse repertoire of T cells against a small group of selected mutations in a tumor. The researchers adapted advanced gene-editing technology to make unprecedented observations about immune responses in patients with metastatic melanoma receiving anti-PD-1 "checkpoint inhibitor" immunotherapy.

Do you have a passion for science and a desire to help people? If so, Optometry may be the perfect field of study for you. Optometry is a branch of medicine that focuses on the eyes and vision. It is a fascinating field that combines science, technology, and patient care to help people see clearly and live their best lives. Optometry is all about helping people to see the world around them. As an optometrist, you will use your knowledge of the eyes and vision to diagnose and treat a range of eye conditions, from simple refractive errors to more complex diseases such as glaucoma and cataracts. You will also help people to maintain their eye health and prevent vision problems from developing. One of the most exciting aspects of Optometry is the constant innovation and research that is taking place in the field. From new technologies that allow for more accurate diagnosis and treatment, to groundbreaking research into the causes and treatments of eye diseases, there is always something new and exciting happening in Optometry. At the undergraduate level, typical majors and modules include anatomy and physiology of the eye, optics, visual perception, and ocular disease. Students will also have the opportunity to gain practical experience through clinical placements and internships. After completing their undergraduate degree, students can go on to specialize in areas such as pediatric optometry, contact lenses, or vision therapy. With a degree in Optometry, there are a range of potential job opportunities available. Optometrists can work in private practice, hospitals, clinics, or for government agencies. Some notable employers in the field include Bausch + Lomb, Johnson & Johnson, and Essilor. To succeed in Optometry, students should have a strong background in science, particularly biology and chemistry. They should also possess excellent communication and interpersonal skills, as they will be working closely with patients on a daily basis. If you are passionate about science and helping people, a degree in Optometry may be the perfect choice for you.

Scientists have developed a groundbreaking treatment for blood cancer using off-the-shelf T-cells. The CALM clinical trial evaluated the potential of UCART19, an "off-the-shelf" CAR-T cell product, against adult patients with B-ALL. The results were recently published in The Lancet Haematology and Cancer Research Communications, showing that 48% of treated patients achieved complete remission lasting an average of 7.4 months. This new approach offers a more efficient and effective alternative to traditional CAR-T cell therapy, providing hope for patients with relapsed or treatment-resistant blood cancers.

Severe stress triggers biological age to increase, but it can be reversed. Surgery, pregnancy, and COVID-19 are studied in humans and mice. Researchers found that biological age increased in situations of severe physiological stress but was restored when the stressful situation resolved. This study challenges the concept that biological age can only increase over a person’s lifetime and suggests that it may be possible to identify interventions that could slow or even partially reverse biological age.

Did you know that adults catch more than 150 colds throughout their lives, and that a single family of viruses causes 30 to 50% of all colds? Understanding the complex relationship between viruses and our immune systems is not only fascinating, but also highly relevant to our daily lives. By reading about pleconaril, rhinovirus, and CRISPR, you'll learn about the science behind vaccines and antiviral drugs, and how they could help us tackle the common cold. But beyond that, exploring this topic will help you appreciate the incredible complexity and resilience of our immune systems, and the importance of maintaining our health. So grab a cup of tea and your favorite notebook, and get ready to dive into the fascinating world of viruses and immune systems!

A groundbreaking study by the University of Oxford as part of the UK's 100,000 Genomes Project has defined five new subgroups of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) and linked these to clinical outcomes, paving the way for more personalized patient care. This is the first study to analyze all the relevant changes in DNA across the entire cancer genome!

Medical research is a fascinating field of study that explores the complexities of the human body and its many diseases. It's an exciting area of research that is constantly evolving, with new discoveries and innovations being made every day. One of the most appealing aspects of medical research is the potential to make a real difference in people's lives. Researchers in this field are at the forefront of developing new treatments and therapies for a wide range of illnesses, from cancer to Alzheimer's disease. One example of groundbreaking research in this field is the development of immunotherapy, a treatment that harnesses the power of the immune system to fight cancer. This innovative approach has already helped to save countless lives and is just one example of the many exciting breakthroughs being made in medical research. At the undergraduate level, students can expect to take a variety of modules that cover topics such as genetics, molecular biology, and epidemiology. These modules provide a solid foundation in the basic principles of medical research and prepare students for further specialisation in areas such as cancer research or infectious diseases. Potential future jobs and roles in medical research include positions as research scientists, clinical trial coordinators, and medical writers. There are also many opportunities to work in public health or in the pharmaceutical industry, with notable employers including the National Institutes of Health, Pfizer, and GlaxoSmithKline. To succeed in this field of study, students should have a strong interest in science and a passion for helping others. They should also possess excellent analytical and critical thinking skills, as well as the ability to work independently and as part of a team. Overall, the study of medical research is an exciting and rewarding field that offers endless possibilities for those who are passionate about making a difference in the world of healthcare.

Childhood cancer is a devastating disease that affects thousands of children every year. However, as cancer is more likely to occur in adults rather than children, research on childhood cancer is often underfunded, leading to fewer treatment options and lower survival rates. One of the biggest challenges in treating childhood cancer is the risk of long-term side effects from chemotherapy and radiation. These treatments can cause developmental delays, learning disabilities, and even secondary cancers later in life. As a result, new treatment strategies are being developed to minimize these risks. One of the most promising new approaches is immunotherapy, a type of treatment that harnesses the power of the immune system to attack cancer cells. CAR T-cell therapy, in which T-cells are genetically engineered to recognize and attack cancer cells, has shown particularly promising results in clinical trials. Another challenge in treating childhood cancer is the lack of targeted therapies. Unlike adult cancers, childhood cancers often have no known driver mutations that can be targeted with precision medicine. Researchers are working to identify new drug targets and develop new treatments that can attack cancer cells while sparing healthy cells. Dr. Kimberly Stegmaier, an oncologist and researcher at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, is one of the leading experts in childhood cancer research. She and her team are working to identify new drug targets and develop targeted therapies for childhood cancers. They are also studying the genetic and molecular characteristics of childhood cancers to better understand how they develop and how they can be treated. In conclusion, childhood cancer presents unique challenges that require innovative solutions. While underfunded research and the lack of targeted therapies have made progress difficult, recent developments in immunotherapy, such as CAR T-cell therapy, show promising results. As we continue to fight for a cure, let us also remember the children and families affected by this disease and strive to support them in any way we can.

Weight loss surgery decreases bile acids linked to higher appetite, but lifestyle changes could mimic the effect. Researchers from King's, the University of Nottingham, and Amsterdam University Medical Centre found that gut microbes play a key role in regulating bile acids and metabolism. The study's results have important implications for targeted interventions for metabolic disorders focused on the gut microbiome. Co-author Professor Tim Spector, the co-founder of personalised nutrition company ZOE, highlights the promise of gut microbiome testing in supporting metabolic health.

We all know how important it is to stay healthy and avoid getting sick. But have you ever wondered about the science behind vaccines? In this video clip, we learn about the key academic concept of how the immune system works to fight off infections and how scientists are working to develop a universal flu vaccine that could protect us against every strain of the flu, even ones that don't exist yet. Learning about this exciting field of research not only expands our knowledge of how vaccines work, but also helps us understand the importance of public health initiatives.

Are you interested in pursuing a career that enables you to make a difference in people's lives while helping them? The field of surgery may be the ideal fit for you! Surgeons are highly skilled medical professionals responsible for performing operations to cure and treat a wide range of diseases and injuries. Let's delve deeper into what it takes to build a career in surgery. As a surgeon, your primary responsibility is to perform surgeries and other medical procedures to diagnose and treat various ailments and conditions. You'll be working with patients of all ages, from infants to the elderly, in several specializations, including neurosurgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, cardiothoracic surgery, and more. One of the most compelling aspects of a career in surgery is the chance to have a significant and long-lasting impact on people's lives. For example, as a neurosurgeon, you can perform life-saving brain surgeries, while as a plastic surgeon, you can help boost someone's confidence and self-esteem by fixing their physical defects. To become a surgeon, you'll need to earn a medical degree, complete a residency program, and get a state license. The entire process of education and training may take up to 14 years, including undergraduate studies in biology, chemistry, or pre-med. Excellent manual dexterity, communication and interpersonal skills, and the ability to work under pressure are essential qualities for success in this field. Attention to detail, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills are equally vital. The job prospects and long-term outlook for surgeons are favorable, with an expected job growth of 4% over the next decade. Surgeons are in high demand worldwide, with hospitals, private clinics, research institutions, and government agencies being some of the potential employers. Numerous top-notch organizations are looking for talented surgeons to join their teams, including the Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Cleveland Clinic in the USA, the Royal London Hospital in the UK, and St. Vincent's Hospital in Australia. In conclusion, if you're looking for a fulfilling and exciting career that allows you to make a difference in people's lives while working in a challenging and rewarding field, surgery may be the perfect career path for you. Take the time to explore this field further and see if it's the right choice for you!

Did you know that selecting the embryo with the lowest risk for a given disease can cut the risk for that disease by almost half? This is particularly true for disorders such as schizophrenia and Crohn’s disease. However, the selection process may not lead to significant improvements in non-disease traits such as intelligence. Moreover, the use of preimplantation genetic screening (PES) raises concerns about psychological well-being, social values, and ethics. Learn more about the potential benefits and risks of PES, and how it may impact our society and individuality.

Cancer is a mysterious and deadly disease that claims the lives of 1500 Americans every day. But why is it so common, and why does treatment often fail? In "Cancer: The Evolutionary Legacy", leading researcher Mel Greaves offers clear and convincing answers to these questions by looking at cancer through a Darwinian lens. Greaves argues that human development has trapped us in a nature-nurture mismatch, causing cancer to thrive. With compelling examples from history and modern research, this fascinating book sheds light on the evolutionary context of cancer and its implications for prevention and treatment. Recommended for biology students, medical professionals, and anyone interested in the evolutionary origins of disease, "Cancer: The Evolutionary Legacy" offers a fresh perspective on this complex and elusive disease. With its lucid and engaging style, this book is accessible to readers of all backgrounds and provides a comprehensive overview of cancer research and treatment. Additionally, those interested in the history of medicine and public health will find the compelling examples from history, including the epidemic of scrotal skin cancer in 18th-century chimney sweeps, to be particularly interesting.

Discover how human evolution has led to unique diseases like knee osteoarthritis, affecting millions worldwide. Professor Terence D. Capellini shares genetic research on the link between bipedalism and knee osteoarthritis, and how identifying high-risk patients at an early age can inform future therapies. Explore the Developmental and Evolutionary Genetics Lab's work and hypotheses published in his 2020 paper "Evolutionary Selection and Constraint on Human Knee Chondrocyte Regulation Impacts Osteoarthritis Risk." Join the Harvard Museums of Science & Culture's ongoing series to learn more.

Discover the secret behind Gram-negative bacteria's armor-like outer membrane! A new study led by Professor Colin Kleanthous at the University of Oxford sheds light on how bacteria like E. coli construct their outer membrane to resemble body armor, with implications for developing antibiotics.

Organ transplants are a life-saving medical breakthrough that have revolutionized the field of medicine. Kidneys are essential organs that filter waste material from the blood and process it into urine. A typical dialysis patient has a poorer life expectancy than many cancers. Removing one kidney should not affect someone's lifespan or quality of life. A kidney from a living donor in general will have a much better quality because it comes from a healthy and tested person. Kidneys are expected to survive up to twice as long on average in the recipient. Currently, it's not allowed to donate a kidney under any form of payment. However, incentivizing people to donate more is actually a way to starve black markets. It's not to recreate them, it's to undermine them. If you reward a person amply for the sacrifice they've made, something they go into with their eyes open and well informed, that's not exploitation. Organ donation is an incredible gift that can save someone's life so palpably, and everyone should consider donating.

Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell and for good reason. These tiny organelles are responsible for producing the energy that our cells need to function. In this write-up, we'll explore the magic of mitochondria and why they are so important to our health and well-being. Did you know that mitochondria are sometimes referred to as the "second genome"? This is because they have their own DNA and can replicate independently of the cell's nucleus. This discovery, made by Dr. Douglas C. Wallace in the late 1970s, revolutionized our understanding of cellular biology. Another interesting fact about mitochondria is that they are thought to have originated from a symbiotic relationship between early cells and primitive bacteria. Over time, the two organisms evolved together to form the cells that make up our bodies today. This theory, known as the endosymbiotic theory, was first proposed by Dr. Lynn Margulis in the 1960s. So, what exactly do mitochondria do? Well, they are responsible for producing energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through a process called cellular respiration. This energy is then used by our cells to carry out all of their functions, from moving and growing, to repairing and reproducing. It's important to note that our cells can't survive without energy, and without mitochondria, we wouldn't be able to produce enough energy to support our bodies. This is why mitochondria are so critical to our health and well-being. By learning more about the magic of mitochondria, you'll gain a deeper understanding of cellular biology and the role that these tiny organelles play in our lives. So, get reading, reflecting, and exploring!

Are you curious about the tiny viruses that inhabit your body? MIT Technology Review's biotech newsletter, The Checkup, explores the world of bacteriophages, or "phages" for short. These microscopic viruses have the potential to treat bacterial infections, but they've been largely abandoned in favor of antibiotics. With antimicrobial resistance on the rise, interest in phage therapy is making a comeback. Learn about the diversity and specificity of phages, and how they could be engineered to target specific bacteria. Discover the potential of phage therapy and the challenges that need to be overcome in this fascinating article.